READING PASSAGE 1
Restoring mangrove coastlines
Mangroves grow where land and sea meet in tropical and subtropical regions. Their tangled roots trap sediment, reduce wave energy and provide nursery habitat for fish. They also store substantial amounts of carbon in waterlogged soils. For these reasons, governments and charities have funded large planting projects along damaged coastlines.
Early programmes often measured success by counting seedlings planted. Many failed because the chosen sites had the wrong tidal conditions. Mangroves cannot survive simply because a coast is warm; each species needs a suitable period of flooding, salinity and sediment movement. In some locations natural recovery begins when blocked tidal channels are reopened, making mass planting unnecessary.
Local participation affects long-term results. Communities may depend on mangrove areas for fishing, fuel or access to the shore. A project that excludes these activities without alternatives can lose public support. By contrast, agreements that define harvesting zones and provide local monitoring can connect conservation with livelihoods.
Mangroves reduce damage from many storms, but they are not an invincible wall. Protection depends on forest width, density, coastal shape and storm intensity. Engineers therefore increasingly combine habitat restoration with warning systems, safe buildings and evacuation plans.
Questions 1–13
1. Mangrove roots can reduce wave energy.
2. Mangroves store carbon only in their leaves.
3. All warm coastlines are suitable for mangrove planting.
4. Opening tidal channels can sometimes allow natural recovery.
5. Every restoration project requires mass planting.
6. Local people may use mangrove areas for fishing.
7. Mangroves prevent damage from every storm.
8. The passage gives the exact minimum width for a protective mangrove forest.
9. Warning systems may be combined with habitat restoration.
10. What did early programmes often count?
11. Why did many planting schemes fail?
12. What can strengthen public support?
13. Which factor influences storm protection?
READING PASSAGE 2
The hidden cost of fast fashion
Fast fashion relies on producing inexpensive clothing quickly in response to changing trends. Short design cycles make new styles available within weeks, encouraging consumers to buy more garments and keep them for less time. The low shop price, however, does not include every environmental and social cost.
Textile production uses water, energy and chemicals. Cotton can require heavy irrigation in dry regions, while synthetic fibres are generally made from fossil fuels. Washing some synthetic fabrics releases tiny plastic fibres into wastewater. Dyeing and finishing may also pollute rivers when factories lack effective treatment systems.
Extending the useful life of clothing can reduce demand for new production. Repair, resale, rental and careful washing all help, but their effect depends on behaviour. A person who sells one shirt and then buys several replacements may not reduce overall consumption. Likewise, a durable garment has limited value if it is rarely worn.
Responsibility does not rest only with consumers. Brands can publish supplier information, design products for repair and avoid destroying unsold stock. Governments can set wastewater standards and require clearer environmental claims. Researchers warn that vague labels such as 'green' or 'conscious' are difficult to evaluate unless companies provide measurable evidence.
Questions 14–26
14. Fast fashion makes new styles available rapidly.
15. The shop price includes every environmental cost.
16. Synthetic fibres are commonly linked to fossil fuels.
17. Washing synthetic clothing may release microfibres.
18. Reselling one item always reduces a person's total consumption.
19. A durable garment is automatically sustainable even if never worn.
20. Only consumers are responsible for fashion's impacts.
21. Some environmental labels lack measurable evidence.
22. Which crop may require heavy irrigation?
23. What can brands do?
24. What can governments regulate?
25. What is the main purpose of paragraph three?
26. Why are vague green claims difficult to judge?
READING PASSAGE 3
Citizen science and urban wildlife
Professional researchers cannot observe every street, garden and park. Citizen-science projects invite members of the public to record birds, insects, plants or environmental conditions. A large number of observations can reveal seasonal patterns and changes across wide areas that would be expensive for a small research team to monitor.
Quantity alone does not guarantee reliable data. Volunteers differ in experience, use different devices and may visit attractive locations more often than ordinary ones. Projects address these biases with identification guides, short training tasks, automated checks and requests for photographs. Scientists may also compare volunteer records with smaller expert surveys.
Participation can influence the volunteers themselves. People often report improved identification skills and greater interest in local habitats. Schools use projects to connect lessons with real observations. Yet organisers should not assume that every participant wants the same experience: some enjoy competition and badges, while others prefer quiet contribution without public rankings.
Good feedback is essential. If volunteers submit records but never learn how the information is used, enthusiasm may decline. Clear summaries, maps and updates about research findings show that individual observations contribute to a larger purpose. Ethical projects also explain privacy rules, particularly when records include precise locations or information about children.
Questions 27–40
27. Professional teams can observe every urban location without help.
28. Many public observations can reveal broad seasonal patterns.
29. More data always guarantees accuracy.
30. Volunteers may prefer attractive locations.
31. Photographs can be used for data checking.
32. Citizen science may improve identification skills.
33. All participants enjoy rankings and badges.
34. Feedback can help maintain volunteer enthusiasm.
35. Why is citizen science useful to researchers?
36. How can projects reduce identification errors?
37. What may happen without feedback?
38. What should ethical projects explain?
39. What is the writer's overall view?
40. Which method validates public records?