READING PASSAGE 1
Urban forests and cooler cities
Cities are usually warmer than nearby rural areas because roads, roofs and concrete absorb solar heat during the day and release it slowly at night. This urban heat-island effect becomes dangerous during heatwaves, especially for older people and residents without air conditioning. Trees help by shading hard surfaces and by releasing water vapour through transpiration. Measurements in several cities show that well-treed streets can be noticeably cooler than exposed streets, although the exact difference varies with climate, tree species and street design.
Planting more trees is not as simple as filling every empty space. Young trees need water, suitable soil and protection from traffic. Large-canopy species provide more shade, but they may interfere with power lines or underground pipes. Some cities therefore use a mixture of species and sizes. Diversity also reduces the risk that one pest or disease will destroy most of the urban forest.
Tree cover is often unevenly distributed. Wealthier districts may have mature trees and private gardens, while densely built neighbourhoods have little room for planting. Researchers increasingly use satellite images to map this inequality. Yet satellite data alone cannot reveal whether residents can actually reach shaded public spaces. Local surveys and neighbourhood consultation remain important.
Urban trees provide benefits beyond cooling: they can slow storm-water runoff, trap some airborne particles and create habitat for birds and insects. However, claims that trees remove all urban pollution are exaggerated. They should complement, not replace, measures that reduce emissions from vehicles, industry and buildings.
Questions 1–13
1. Urban roads and roofs release stored heat after sunset.
2. Every tree species cools a street by exactly the same amount.
3. Large-canopy trees may conflict with urban infrastructure.
4. Using only one tree species protects cities from pests.
5. Satellite images can show whether residents enjoy visiting parks.
6. Tree cover may be lower in densely built neighbourhoods.
7. Urban trees can completely replace emission-control policies.
8. Trees may reduce the speed of storm-water runoff.
9. The passage states that private gardens must be opened to the public.
10. Young urban trees require care after planting.
11. Which process releases water vapour from trees?
12. Why do cities plant a mixture of species?
13. What does the writer say about pollution removal by trees?
READING PASSAGE 2
Can sleep strengthen learning?
Sleep is not simply a period when the brain switches off. During sleep, patterns of neural activity associated with recent experiences are replayed, and this process is thought to help stabilise memories. In laboratory studies, people who sleep after learning often remember more than people who remain awake for the same length of time. The effect is clearest when the waking group is prevented from resting and encounters new information that may interfere with the original memory.
Different stages of sleep may support different kinds of learning. Deep non-rapid-eye-movement sleep has often been linked with factual memories, while rapid-eye-movement sleep has been associated with emotional and procedural learning. Researchers caution that the division is not absolute: sleep stages interact, and a normal night contains repeated cycles rather than one long block of each stage.
Some experiments use targeted memory reactivation. Participants first learn a task while hearing a particular sound. The sound is then played quietly during sleep. In certain studies this improves later performance, but the method does not teach entirely new material to an unconscious person. Loud or frequent sounds may disturb sleep and cancel any benefit.
For students, the practical message is conventional. Regular sleep, spaced study and revision before bed are more reliable than staying awake all night. Caffeine can temporarily reduce sleepiness, but it cannot fully restore the attention and memory lost through insufficient sleep.
Questions 14–26
14. The brain shows no activity connected with recent experience during sleep.
15. Sleeping after study can support memory.
16. A normal night contains repeated sleep cycles.
17. Deep sleep supports only emotional memories.
18. Targeted memory reactivation can teach a new language from nothing.
19. Excessive sound during sleep may remove the benefit of reactivation.
20. The author recommends all-night study before examinations.
21. Caffeine fully reverses memory loss caused by poor sleep.
22. What can interfere with a newly formed memory?
23. What is the passage's main warning about sleep stages?
24. What happens before a cue sound is played during sleep?
25. Which study method is described as reliable?
26. What does caffeine mainly do?
READING PASSAGE 3
Community museums in changing towns
Traditional museums often collect objects judged to have national artistic or historical value. Community museums begin from a different question: what do local people want to remember and explain about their own area? Their collections may include factory tools, shop signs, family photographs, oral histories and ordinary household objects. Individually these items may seem unremarkable, but together they can show how work, migration and daily life have changed.
Participation is central to the model. Residents may donate objects, record interviews, identify people in photographs or help design exhibitions. This can bring knowledge that professional curators do not possess. At the same time, participation creates difficult choices. Memories conflict, some stories are painful, and the loudest groups may dominate unless organisers actively seek less visible voices.
Digital technology has widened access. Collections can be photographed and placed online, allowing former residents to contribute information from far away. Digital copies also reduce handling of fragile originals. Nevertheless, online displays do not eliminate the need for physical spaces. Visitors often value face-to-face discussion and the emotional impact of seeing an authentic object.
Funding remains a persistent problem. Small museums may depend on volunteers and short-term grants. Partnerships with schools, libraries and local businesses can provide stability, but commercial sponsorship may influence which stories receive attention. Successful museums usually make such relationships transparent and retain clear rules about curatorial independence.
Questions 27–40
27. Community museums may collect ordinary household objects.
28. Only professional curators can contribute information.
29. Community memories are always consistent.
30. Online collections can receive information from former residents.
31. Digital copies can reduce handling of fragile objects.
32. The passage says physical museums are no longer necessary.
33. Short-term funding can create difficulties.
34. What risk arises during community participation?
35. Why do visitors still value physical spaces?
36. What can former residents add to online collections?
37. Why are digital copies useful?
38. What concern may accompany business sponsorship?
39. What practice supports curatorial independence?
40. What best describes the passage?